In 2013 Image had data on population census for the years 1999, 2000 and 2010 when available, from 179 countries. The 70 countries selected by Bell and Charles-Edwards represented 71 per cent of the total population in 2010, with a full coverage of countries in all continents (16 countries in Africa, 25 in Asia, 10 in Europe, 23 in Latin America and the Caribbean, 3 in North America and 3 in Oceania).

This meant that nearly 12 per cent of the world’s population in the year 2010 was made of internal migrants.

In 2020 new displacements occurred 144 times due to disasters compared to 42 times due to conflict and violence.

Other human activities influencing climate include the emission of aerosols and other short-lived climate forcers, and land-use change such as urbanisation, [IPCC 2021].

The Brandt Line provides a visualization of the divide between the wealthy global North and poorer global South, highlighting the disparities and inequalities between the two parts [Lees 2021, 85-106].

In 2021, more than two-thirds (69 per cent) of all refugees and those displaced abroad came from just five countries. Syrian Arab Republic (6.8 million), Venezuela (4.6 million), Afghanistan (2.7 million), South Sudan (2.4 million) and Myanmar (1.2 million). Low- and middle-income countries hosted 83 per cent of the world’s refugees displaced abroad while the least developed countries provided asylum to 27 per cent of the total; 72 per cent are hosted in neighbouring countries. Turkey hosted nearly 3.8 million refugees, the largest population worldwide. Colombia was second with more than 1.8 million, followed by Uganda (1.5 million), Pakistan (1.5 million) and Germany (1.3 million). With regard to IDPs, the island of Aruba hosted the largest number of Venezuelans displaced abroad (1 in 6) while Lebanon received the largest number of refugees (1 in 8), followed by Curaçao (1 in 10), Jordan (1 in 14) and Turkey (1 in 23) [UNHCR 2022a, 2-3].

Concerning demographics of people who have been forcibly displaced children account for 30 per cent of the world’s population, but 41 per cent of all forcibly displaced; among the latter, specifically considering age groups and gender, those in the 0-17 age group are 21 per cent male and 20 per cent female; the 18-59 age group is split 27 per cent male and 26 per cent female; those aged 60+ account for 3 per cent for both sexes [UNHCR cit., 3].

The WPS index ranges between 0 and 1, where higher scores represent higher levels of inclusion.

On the New York Declaration, see, inter alia, Carletti and Borraccetti [2018].

Of the 2021 total, 1,924 people were reported to have died or gone missing on the Central and Western Mediterranean routes, while an additional 1,153 perished or went missing on the Northwest African maritime route to the Canary Islands, according to UNHCR’s report [2022b].

Under international human rights law, the principle of non-refoulement guarantees that no one should be returned to a country where they would face torture, cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment and other irreparable harm. This principle applies to all migrants at all times, irrespective of migration status.

Among these, worthy of note: the model of the «Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement» of 1998, a soft law tool whose objective was the study of displacement phenomena that occurred within the same countries; the «Nansen Initiative on disaster-induced cross-border displacement», promoted in 2012 by Switzerland and Norway, a state-led, bottom-up consultative process intended to build consensus on the development of a protection agenda addressing the needs of people displaced across international borders in the context of disasters and the effects of climate change. In particular, the latter led to the establishment of the «Platform on Disaster Displacement» whose main aim is to promote the implementation of the recommendations resulting from the dialogue between the parties with reference to the protocol on protection. It recommends: 1) collecting data and improving knowledge on disasters and displacements causing cross-border mobility; 2) increasing humanitarian protection; 3) improving disaster and displacement management; 4) working on risk management in countries, integrating, for example, human mobility into risk reduction plans and national adaptation plans. For further details see: https://www.unhcr.org/protection/idps/43ce1cff2/guiding-principles-internal-displacement.html; https://environmentalmigration.iom.int/nansen-initiative.