The FAO’s definition of food security was agreed at the 1996 World Food Summit. It suggests that food security exists when «all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life» [FAO 2001]. The FAO definition of food security implies that people can only be considered as food secure when sufficient food is available, they have access to it and it is well utilised (i.e. their absorption translates into improved nutritional outcomes). A fourth requirement is stability across those three dimensions over time, which means the ability to manage risks effectively [Brooks and Matthews 2015]. Food security is also at the core of the SDGs. More specifically, SDG 2 is to «end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture», while Target 2.2 is to «end all forms of malnutrition» [FAO 2015].

This tariff refers to the simple average of the most favored nation one. It is important to note that there is a large variance of tariffs between countries with Egypt having the highest tariff of 38 per cent (average of 2015-2020) and Bahrain the lowest (5 per cent).

The Russian invasion of Ukraine resulted into a sharp increase in the price of natural gas used in the production of ammonia, a base material for fertilizers. For more details, see IFPRI [2022].

The International Trade Centre, for example, has launched the «SheTrades Initiative» to improve women’s livelihood in export-oriented value chains. For more details, see https://intracen.org/media/file/11681.