Numbeo provides the cost of basic utilities (electricity, heating, cooling, water, waste collection) for an 85 m2 apartment. We consider that 85 m2 is too large for a one-room apartment so we rescale the utilities cost by dividing by half, i.e. we are considering an average size of 42.5 m2. To add the specific dimension of sustainability related to affordable access to public transport, also add the monthly pass (Regular Price) to the living wage. If this ratio is equal to 100, it means that basic average expenditures are equal to the average after-tax wage income. Can the average wage ensure a «living» wage for citizens, especially at a time of economic crisis?

– Growth rate of the gasoline price.

– Kaitz index: We calculate this index as the statutory minimum wage of each country relative to the average monthly net salary (after tax). As statutory minimum wages are in dollars, we applied the exchange rate to express them in euros as the monthly wage.

We chose to analyse 13 Mediterranean coastal cities belonging to different countries (5 out of 13 capital cities), each of which is representative of a larger sample of cities with similar characteristics and approaches to sustainability. Six cities belong to a European context (Athens, Barcelona, Marseille, Naples, Split and Tirana), four cities are from the North African coast (Alexandria, Algiers, Casablanca, Tunis) and three are located on the eastern side of the Mediterranean (Beirut, Istanbul and Tel-Aviv). The choice of cities depended on data availability as well as the intention to represent diverse urban realities. The Mediterranean is characterized by common identities, religions and civilisations, diets, foods, cultures and arts, physical-somatic features, urban shapes and climatic/environmental peculiarities. On the other hand, it is also marked by the existence of disparities between wealth and poverty, models of modernity and profoundly different rights of citizenship [Guida 2022].

In the sample, there is a considerable number of cities (7) with a population between 500,000 and one million inhabitants, just one city with a small population (Split), four metropolises with more than one million inhabitants, and a mega city (Istanbul) ¶{p. 342}with more than 15 million inhabitants [Carpentieri, Gargiulo and Guida 2020]. The cities with higher population density are Athens, Barcelona, Beirut and Casablanca.

Alexandria is the second largest city in Egypt, with more than five million inhabitants. Located on the northern coast of the country, it is the largest of the coastal cities considered in this study in terms of land area. With a deep-rooted historical background, it thrives on tourism and the shipping industry. It has the character of a cosmopolitan city but is undergoing an environmental crisis because of the loss of green areas due to urban sprawl and the lack of environmental regulation or governmental supervision [UNDP Egypt 2009].

Algiers is the capital and the largest city of Algeria, situated on the west side of a bay, with the modern city developing along the coastline and the old town on the hill behind. The climate is mitigated by the Mediterranean, but it is estimated that by 2050 temperatures will have increased by 2.6°C. The city is a major economic, financial and commercial hub for North Afri¶{p. 343}ca, ranking first by cost of living. In 2022 some mega-projects regarding energy, transport, agriculture and construction were announced [Chabbi-Chemrouk 2019].

Athens is the capital of Greece as well as one of the largest cities in Europe, with a centuries-old urban history and the characteristics of a centre for culture, inclusion, port trade and economic and financial blossoming for Southeastern Europe.

After years of proliferation of environmental degradation, since the 1990s a series of interventions has been put in place to improve the performance of urban activities, quality of life, air quality and infrastructures. However, because of the continuation of pollution, the climate is very hot. Thus Athens suffers heat waves and their consequences such as fires and droughts [Municipality of Athens 2023].

Barcelona is a coastal city in Spain, the capital of the autonomous community of Catalonia and one of the most densely inhabited cities in Europe (16,421.7 per km2), configuring itself as a compact city. Over the past century, Barcelona has been transformed from an industrial to a service-based city, highly specialised in tourism and culture, and with a high quality of life thanks to the large number of opportunities for its inhabitants and the efficiency of its public administration [Ajuntament de Barcelona n.d.]. The city is one of the biggest passenger ports in the world. The climate is mild, characterized by hot summers.

Beirut is the capital and the largest city of Lebanon and the most important economic centre for the country thanks to its port and consequent financial benefits throughout the city.

Located on a peninsula on the northern coast of Lebanon, it has a history of more than 5,000 years, although continuous armed conflict has undermined the preservation of its historical and cultural heritage, as well as the city’s security. Beirut suffered a recent waste management crisis, partially solved in 2016, and has a notable lack of green areas, with more than 80 per cent of the land sealed by concrete surfaces. The climate is hot-summer Mediterranean, characterized by mild days and nights, as its coastal location allows temperatures to be moderated by the sea.

Casablanca, the capital of Morocco, is the largest city in the country in terms of population, economy, industry and commerce. It is not located on the Mediterranean, but on the Atlantic coast. Since the early twentieth century, colonial and economic ¶{p. 344}intervention has led to an intensive and rapid process of urbanisation. The port has a strategic function for the continent and the financial venues make it the largest financial centre in Africa. Currently, Casablanca has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate and, according to the 2022 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, it is one of the major African cities which would be severely affected by future sea level rise.

Istanbul, the largest city in Turkey, has the shape of a megalopolis in continuous expansion, with more than 15 million inhabitants, configuring itself as a cosmopolitan and multicultural city and the largest cultural, economic and historic hub of the Middle East. Istanbul accounts for 30 per cent of Turkey’s GDP and contributes to most of the productivity in the industrial, manufacturing and tertiary sector. It joins the cities of the sample with a consolidated urban history, having its roots in the 7th century BC, with an urban area that straddles the Bosporus. Istanbul has a borderline Mediterranean, humid subtropical and oceanic climate, and urban expansion, along with the consequent traffic and congestion, is intensifying the effects of climate change such as heatwaves and extreme meteorological events.

Marseille is located in the South of France and is the second most populous French city. The seaport makes it an important commercial and industrial hub in the Mediterranean as well as a sought-after tourist destination. The city has recently grown in the sector of high-tech and services. It is characterized by a multicultural environment which in some cases has caused marginalization and high crime rates. However, its nomination as European Capital of Culture in 2013 set in train a series of regeneration projects. Marseille has a Mediterranean climate, with cool-mild and moderately rainy winters and hot dry summers, but with poor air quality and high levels of pollution.

Naples, in the South of Italy, is the third largest city in the country and one of the oldest urban settlements in the world.

Therefore it has the shape of a stratified city. The city’s economy feeds on tourism (thanks to its rich cultural heritage and the proximity to historical sites and landscape attractions), commerce (thanks to the seaport, and the presence of international organizations such as NATO), and business activities. Naples has a Mediterranean climate which, together with the presence of two volcanic areas, has favoured the development of agriculture and ¶{p. 345}gastronomy. Over the past decades, the city has coped with diverse environmental and social challenges such as a refuse crisis and degraded neighbourhoods. An inefficient public transport system and high levels of congestion result in low air quality and pollution.

Split is the largest coastal city in Croatia and an important transport centre for the Dalmatia region, although it is the smallest city considered in this study. Because of the Yugoslav tensions and the subsequent economic recession, Split started to grow economically only from 2000, focusing on tourism, thanks to its cultural and landscape heritage. It has a Mediterranean climate. It now boasts a high quality of life, thanks to good results in healthcare, environment and the cost of living.

Tel-Aviv is the economic and technological centre of Israel, with an important role in global finance. The high cost of living is well balanced by the presence of efficient services, the wide-ranging cultural offer, a moderate climate and widespread social inclusion. However, there are some distinctions to be made between the North and the South of the city, with the northern population much more affluent than the South.

Tirana is the capital and largest city in Albania. Although not on the coast, it is considered a Mediterranean city because of its proximity to the Adriatic and the influence of the sea on its climate and socio-economic structure. In recent decades, the demolition of illegal settlements along with governance, education and economic reforms has transformed the city, giving it a new shape. Nevertheless, poverty and socio-economic disparities still cause problems. The city is surrounded by two important protected areas which improve, on the one hand, biodiversity and environmental quality and, on the other, make the city more attractive to tourists.

Tunis is the capital of Tunisia and its largest city. It extends along the coast, surrounding the ancient town and connecting it to the Mediterranean basin. It is a political and administrative centre for the country, as well as an important commercial and cultural hub. The city has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate.