As shown in figure 11, MENA energy consumption in 2021 was 45.9 exajoules. The most commonly used source of energy provision was natural gas (54.6 per cent of total consumed energy, followed by oil at 42 per cent). These two fossil fuels are the main primary energy sources consumed, also thanks to the MENA region’s high endowment. On the other hand, the sum of the percentages of the remaining energy sources, namely coal, nuclear energy, hydroelectric and renewables, reached 3.4 per cent. In addition to coal, whose share of consumption in all was 1.6 per cent, the shares of non-fossil fuel energy sources are very low. In descending order, renewable energy accounts for 0.8 per cent of total consumption, hydroelectric energy 0.7 per cent, and lastly nuclear energy only 0.3 per cent of the total. The low percentage of renewable energy consumption (hydroelectric, wind and solar energy) gives cause for concern, especially if compared to the share of renewable energy consumed in the rest of the world. The MENA region is indeed a favourable area for the development of plants for renewable energy production which could give the region a dominant position in the energy market.¶{p. 129}

This section focuses on energy consumption in the main countries of Mediterranean Europe.

These countries are subject to EU policies aimed at ensuring the transition towards renewable energy. Therefore we analyse their consumption of fossil fuels and their variation over time. We also consider the need of France, Italy and Spain to replace their suppliers of energy sources in tackling the supply shock due to the conflict in Ukraine. None of the three countries have internal resources which is why their energy requirement must be met by external sources. As in the previous analyses, below we focus on the consumption of the various types of energy sources in relation to the suppliers of the MENA region.

As may be seen in figure 12, the sum of the consumption of oil and natural gas for Italy exceeds half the total energy consumption (77.9 per cent). It is followed by Spain whose consumption of oil and natural gas is 65.6 per cent. Finally, France shows the lowest level: its total oil and natural gas consumption does not even reach half the total consumption (47.4 per cent). Upon more detailed analysis, Italy has the highest level of natural gas consumption (41 per cent) versus the world average which is 24.4 per cent. By contrast, the consumption of natural gas of the remaining two European countries, France and Spain, approaches the world average: 16.5 per cent and 21.8 per cent respectively. With regard to oil consumption, France falls within the world average while demand for oil in Italy and Spain is higher: Spain stands at 43.8 per cent and Italy at 36.9 per cent.

Focusing on Italy, the overall consumption of fossil fuels leaves little room for the consumption of other energy sources. Italy’s consumption from sources other than fossil fuels amounts to 18.3 per cent (fig. 13), comprising renewables (11.9 per cent) and hydroelectric (6.4 per cent). It is followed by Spain which also takes advantage of nuclear energy whose consumption amounts to 9.1 per cent. ¶{p. 130}

Finally, France has the highest overall consumption from sources other than fossil fuels (50.2 per cent). However, in terms of renewable energy consumption, France has the lowest level of consumption (7.9 per cent). It follows Italy (11.9 per cent) and Spain with the highest level (17.4 per cent), a percentage that far exceeds the world average. ¶{p. 131}

Oil and natural gas represent the main sources of energy of the three countries in question. This constitutes a dependency factor which could be dangerous in the event of supply shortages. In this context, we examine below the international relations of France, Italy and Spain regarding the trade in oil and natural gas.

Oil. In 2019, France imported 93,585.01 thousand tonnes of oil, 31.5 per cent of which came from the MENA region. The amount of imported oil has decreased over time: in 2020 76,093.76 thousand tonnes of oil were imported, while 2021 recorded a slight increase (4 per cent), i.e. 79,126.33 thousands tonnes of imported oil. Looking at France’s suppliers of oil, it should be noted that Russia is its main supplier with a share of 14.55 per cent. It is followed by the United States, Saudi Arabia, Algeria and the Netherlands whose shares vary from 6 per cent to 8 per cent. Of the three countries, Italy had the highest level of imported oil in 2020, of which 42.3 per cent was supplied by ¶{p. 132}MENA. In 2021 this amount decreased by 18.6 per cent, arriving at a total of 65.41 million tonnes of oil imported. Italy’s main oil suppliers are countries from the MENA region. The top five suppliers, Azerbaijan, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Russia and Libya, account for 59.63 per cent of total imports.